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Chapter 21

The Role of Community Composting Groups in Nairobi

Jacob K. Kibwage and Grace M. Momanyi

Kenya’s capital city, Nairobi, has experienced rapid growth both in terms of population and physical expansion. The physical area of Nairobi expanded from 3.84 km² in 1900 to 684 km² in 1963, which is the current official size of the city. As the boundaries were expanded, the city population increased from 16,000 to about 2.1 million persons between 1910 and 2000 (Republic of Kenya, 2001a). About 50% of the Nairobi residents live below the poverty line and are concentrated in peri-urban and slum areas characterized by limited amenities and unhygienic living conditions (Republic of Kenya, 2001b). Such rapid urban growth has caused deterioration of solid waste management services in the city resulting in environmental pollution (Kibwage, 2002). The Nairobi City Council, which is the legal authority responsible for waste management, has no capacity because only 40% of the amount of solid waste generated by the city is collected and disposed. This poor state of solid waste management services in Nairobi is attributed to insufficient financial outlays, shortage of equipment and unfavorable institutional and organizational arrangements. Furthermore, there is an absence of a systematic and integrated approach to tackling the waste management problem. The attitudes of poorer city residents toward environmental cleanliness are also a contributing factor (Kibwage, 1996; Peters, 1998). An urgent need exists for new methods of waste handling and promoting fuller environmental awareness.

By 1986, some of the Nairobi residents able to pay for refuse collection opted for private companies that serviced the high and medium income estates. The low-income residents were required to adopt other strategies to improve and maintain sanitation in their neighborhoods. Hence, by 1992 small-scale community-based composting groups emerged in Nairobi's slum areas including Korogocho, Mukuru-Kayaba, Dandora, Kibera, Mathare and Kangemi. Despite these positive developments by both the private and community sectors, piles of solid waste in open spaces and overflowing refuse containers are all too evident in most residential, commercial and industrial areas of the city.  As the magnitude of the task grows, the city council and the government continue to place emphasis upon self-financing of cleansing services rather than enacting policies that sustain recycling activities of the informal sector. 

Constraints Faced by Composting Groups

The distinguishing socio-economic characteristics of composting groups members examined include sex, age, education and training. Most of the composting groups members (92%) are women. Because of the nature of the waste collection occupation, women rely on the few male members or hired labourers to do heavy manual jobs like transportation of organic wastes from the collection points to the composting sites. However, women play a larger role in composting activities in the city. This is in line with Agenda 21 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Sustainable Development which recognized that the effective implementation of all programs aimed at sustainable development, would depend on the active involvement of women in economic and political decision-making processes (UNEP, 1995). The mean age is 42 years while the modal class is 41-45 years. The older members typically seek the assistance of their husbands and children or casual workers for heavier manual labour. The levels of education attained by the members of composting groups are low. We observed that 46% had no formal education and 37% and 11% had primary and ‘O’ educational levels, respectively. However, it is encouraging to note that 5% and 2% have ‘A’ level and college/university education, respectively. The low educational levels among the composting groups members negatively affect their productivity due to lack of basic technical skills and limited ability to learn new composting techniques. This problem is partly resolved through an on-the-job training strategy. So far this strategy being used by NGOs has benefited about 71% of the members. Nevertheless, appropriate training is still required to ensure that consistent and higher quality compost is regularly produced by the groups.

Although the composting activities of the composting groups are self-financing, the groups have financial problems because the sale of compost is not a sufficient source of income for long-term capital investments. They also derive their incomes from membership fees and donations from NGOs or individuals that visit their sites, however, these sources are unreliable and unpredictable. Seasonal variations in the demand for compost cause financial problems because the current market outlets for compost are limited to urban farming. The groups need assistance in the wider marketing of their compost and promotion of the virtues of composting to urban residents for landscaping and as a potting mixture. Composting groups have not had access to credit facilities such as bank loans because they lack securities. Development research also indicates that women groups are often discriminated by financial institutions (UNEP, 1985). It must be noted that composting in the city is an attractive venture for the community-based groups because of the financial and technical support from the NGOs. When the donor funds through NGOs are exhausted, the activities of the groups may likely collapse because they cannot sustain their operations through compost sales.

The Role of Composting Groups in Solid Waste Management

The solid waste in Nairobi comprises 70% readily-biodegradable matter with the remainder being paper and cardboard (13%), plastic and rubber (5%), glass and stones (4%), metal (5%) and the non-classifiable fine materials about 3% (Republic of Kenya, 1985; Kibwage, 2002). Potentially harmful substances such as used electric batteries and razor blades are also present but in low concentrations. This composition makes the Nairobi waste quite suitable for composting after sorting. The percentage of compost obtained from a given pile is determined by the level of training of group members, watering and aeration patterns, presence of soil and the types of composting ingredients. Approximately, 28% of the raw material is lost by leaching, evaporation and conversion to gas during the composting problems  (Maxwell and Zziwa, 1992; Lardinois and Klundert, 1993; Peters, 1998; Kibwage, 2002).  Members join their groups with the aim of improving the health and sanitation of the community (Table 1) but may also seek to create environmental awareness on the hazards caused by improper waste disposal. Composting reduces open piles of garbage in narrow streets resulting in reduced populations of rats, mice, snakes, cockroaches, mosquitoes and flies, but also prevents blockage of drainage systems. Promotion of environmental awareness on better waste disposal is achieved through public lectures in churches, schools, colleges and universities. The groups also train individuals and households on the techniques of small-scale community-based composting and separation of wastes at the household level, further contributing to environmental outreach.

Table 1. Reasons for joining composting programmes among 184 respondents in Nairobi (after Kibwage, 1996).

Decomposition of organic wastes in open dumps and in stagnant water causes pollution and health hazards, and leachates in the soil lead to pollution of ground and surface water. Open dumps are associated with health and fire hazards including smoke in the slum areas. But, such hazards have drastically reduced in Dandora, Korogocho and Mukuru-Kayaba slum areas after the groups started their composting and sanitation programmes. Solid wastes eroded into the Nairobi River are also reduced. Despite this positive environmental role, inorganic waste, especially polythene papers and plastics, remain a problem to the residents because group members are most interested in organic compostable wastes, however infrequent turning and inadequate monitoring of the compost piles cause bad odours.

Composting Procedure

Composting is a reclamation process that involves activating and controlling the biological decay of organic waste in order to obtain an agricultural soil conditioner. The composting procedure involves four steps: collection of organic materials, building and processing the compost pile, screening for uniformity, and marketing of compost.

Three categories of materials are collected; dry vegetation, green (wet) materials and soil. Dry vegetation includes weeds and crop residues. Dry vegetation is used for adding carbon and improving texture of the compost. Green waste include fresh weeds and leaves, bones, egg-shells, fruit and vegetable peelings, animal and poultry manure, banana and potato peels and maize meal. Soil may be added to improve compost texture. Organic materials that are not considered for composting include meat and animal fats, fish, seeds, bleached paper, diseased plants and dog and cat faeces. These materials are not collected because they decompose poorly, contain potential pathogens or attract pests and vermin to the site. All the collected materials are hand sorted at the composting site to remove these unwanted materials.

Open pile composting is the most common method employed by the composting groups in Nairobi. The steps used in preparing and processing compost follow.

1. Select a 1.5 m x 1.5 m area under the shade of a tree or polythene sheet. The cover shelters the compost pile from direct sun, strong winds and heavy rains.

2. Clear and dig the area to a depth of 15-30 cm. Deeper digging permits excess water and heavy rains to drain, allowing for better aeration.

3. Apply a 7.5 cm layer of coarse dry vegetation such as maize stalks, banana stems and tree branches to allow air to pass through the pile.

4. Add a 10 cm layer of chopped and fine dry vegetation

5. Add a 5 cm layer of green waste and cover it with a 2.5 cm layer of soil to reduce the odor and keep away flies and other pests.

6. Add more layers of dry vegetation, green waste and soil until the pile is 1.2-1.5 m high. Each layer of materials should be watered.

7. In the dry season, make the top of the pile flat and rounded during the rainy season. Cover the pile with a sheet of polythene paper to protect it further from winds and to conserve moisture. During dry seasons, the pile is watered every morning and evening to promote the activities of decomposing organisms.

8. Drive a long, sharpened stick diagonally into the middle of the compost pile. The stick is used to monitor the composting process. The pile is turned once every week. The compost is ready for use when it turns dark-brown, and has no unpleasant odour. The composting process requires approximately 4 to 6 weeks.

9. When the compost is ready, large and non-decomposed objects are removed by passing the compost through a wire mesh (Figure 3). The large objects are either added in the next compost pile or disposed. A mesh size of 5 mm results in finer-textured and more uniform compost, but 10 mm mesh allows for more rapid sieving and greater recovery of finished product.

10. After the screening process, the compost is packaged into 20 kg bags and sold for approximately KSh 200 (= US $2.67). Larger quantities of compost are marketed at a considerable discount.

Socio-economic Benefits of Composting

Although a majority of the group members join their groups with the aim of earning a living through composting, only a small fraction (3%) actually depend upon composting as their main occupation. Other members have varying sources of income including employment in the civil service, private sector or are engaged in small-scale business or urban farming. Environmental protection succeeds when people make a living out of it and this is essential in the planning and implementation of community-based composting projects. Estimates of operational costs and revenues from the Nairobi’s composting groups indicate that production of 6800 kg of compost requires about KSh 3320, hence a production cost of about KSh 0.5 per kg. Even at a sales price of KSh 3.50 per kg, substantial profits may be made, sufficient to pay full-time members up to KSh 7000 per month.  

The activities of composting groups have contributed to the generation of employment opportunities for the urban poor. For example, The Kuku Women Group employs two full-time workers as well as other casual labourers. The social role of small-scale community-based composting groups is inherently intangible and complex. Nevertheless, the groups are agents of organizational and institutional development within the low-income urban communities. These composting groups represent a significant step in terms of social organization and environmental awareness (Peters, 1998; IIRR, 1998) and from a developmental perspective, this community mobilization is as important as accompanying local income generation.

Technical Issues in Composting

Nairobi’s small-scale community-based composting groups face multiple technical problems during collection, transportation and composting of organic wastes. Members of The Kuku Women Group separate their wastes at the household level while non-members are encouraged, but not required to practice source-separation. In either case, sorting is a labor intensive and rather unpleasant task compounded by lack of suitable space and foul odors. The number of non-member households voluntarily separating wastes remains low due to lack of additional incentives and conservation awareness, with some non-members demanding to be paid for their effort. Lack of a policy on source-separation of solid wastes and a general sense of irresponsibility on the part of residents adversely affect composting because sorting is crucial to upscale and improve the safety of waste recycling (Lardinois and Klundert, 1993; Mougeot, 1996). Source separation also reduces the weight and moisture content of solid waste, easing its handling and transport.

Insufficient labor exists because many of the workers are old and less able to move waste materials over modest distances. The major means of transportation used by the composting groups are wheelbarrows with a carrying capacity limited to 40 to 50 kg. There are approximately 10 group members per wheelbarrow, requiring that sacks, plastic bags and traditional baskets also be used for collection and transportation. The use of wheelbarrows provides ready access to the narrow streets and pathways in poorer residential areas and is the preferred means to locally transport wastes.  Too few wheelbarrows result in additional toil and reduce compost production capacities.

Monitoring the temperature, aeration and moisture content of compost piles relies upon too much guesswork rather than established procedures.  There is need for more exact standards in terms of compost texture and moisture and nutrient contents, as well as better labeling, before these composts can become extensively marketed. Lack of space for efficient sorting, composting and packaging operations also poses a problem to many small-scale community-based composting groups.

The groups have no long-term plans for capital investment, primarily because they lack a permanent title to land for their operations. Too often, composting locations lack sufficient boundaries that would otherwise reduce offensive smells emanating from the sorting areas and younger compost piles. This situation has forced many composting groups to search for alternative composting sites farther removed from residential areas, confounding their transportation difficulties. Composting requires regular addition of water and the groups spend about 18% of their total expenditure on watering. Lack of adequate drainage in most areas of the city, combined with steep slopes may cause compost piles to be washed away during heavy rains. Composting sites usually are not planned and, ironically, environmental impact assessment is seldom considered when selecting locations for these recycling operations.

Compost Markets and Institutional Support

Availability and access to outlets for the finished product is fundamental in the success of any composting activity. However, lack of market for the compost is a major constraint facing the groups (Table 2). Most of the compost lies at the sites for extended periods because the market is irregular and seasonal with moderate sales occurring during the planting season.  Poor  marketing  research,  weak advertising  and poor public access to the composting sites negatively affect compost marketing. In addition, many gardeners are reluctant to use compost made from urban domestic wastes. Nonetheless, this compost sells for as much a KSh 10 per kilogram (US $0.13) and the price has approximately doubled over the past decade. Opportunity exists to widen the market for these composts by better packaging and promoting a more uniform product to urban hobbyists and the organic farming movement.

Table 2.  Frequency of operational constraints reported by 67 members of small-scale community-based composting groups in Nairobi (after Kibwage, 1996).

Kenyan legislation is not supportive of composting activities in urban areas. Under the Public Health Act (Republic of Kenya, 1972), a manure heap may be deemed to be a nuisance, in which case the Medical Officer of Health must serve a notice on the person responsible for the nuisance to remove it at the latter’s expense. Similarly, composting programmes lack political support from the local and central governments. Apart from the few allocations of small plots to the composting groups, the city council has not integrated composting activities within its solid waste management system. Neither subsidies nor financial and technical assistance are forthcoming from local government.  Urban farmers, the largest category of potential customers of this compost, often lack land tenure and may be harassed by authorities.  These factors serve to reduce their demand for organic fertilizers which in turn destabilizes the production and marketing of compost (Foeken and Mwangi, 1998; Maxwell and Zziwa, 1992). Although the central government recognizes the environmental benefits derived from composting domestic wastes, few real policy incentives are being extended to these groups to facilitate their operations.

Conclusion

About 70% of Nairobi’s solid waste is organic, indicating its suitability for composting. Small-scale community composting groups are concentrated in the low-income slum areas where neither the city council nor the private companies appear interested in investing in waste management. The benefits derived from small-scale community-based composting groups in Nairobi range from reducing the amount of solid waste collected for disposal, improving community health and sanitation, restricting environmental pollution, promoting environmental awareness,  creating  employment  and  additional  income-generating  activities (Figure 4) and facilitating urban agriculture. The small-scale composting programmes are popular in the management of solid waste because of the financial and moral support from NGOs.

Enactment and implementation of a policy on source separation of solid wastes and solid waste management legislation to support organic waste recycling and its application is recommended. Political support is urgently needed if small-scale composting programmes are to succeed. The Ministry of Agriculture must assume a leading role in market research, quality standards and run demonstration projects. Opportunity exists to enhance synergies between urban agriculture and other urban sectors through multi-stakeholder consultations on urban agriculture policy, planning and management. Public education on the advantages of using compost in agriculture and its environmental benefits in both rural and urban areas need to be promoted with the use of video shows, radio, newspapers and magazines, television programmes and public campaigns. Apart from farming, other compost outlets such as horticulture, tree nurseries, parks, cemeteries, lawns and playgrounds should be pursued to expand the market for compost. Financial and technical support is urgently required in form of loans, donations, equipment and training by government, NGOs and urban authorities to the various groups.

References

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Kibwage, J.K. 2002. Integrating the Informal Recycling Sector into Solid Waste Management Planning in Nairobi City. PhD Thesis. Maseno University. Kisumu, Kenya.

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