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Chapter 22

The Organic Agriculture Movement in Kenya

Musa N. Omare and Paul L. Woomer

Organic farming entails the avoidance of chemically-manufactured farm inputs and reliance upon locally-available organic materials as a means of conserving farm resources and controlling crop pests.  It strives to maximize returns to available organic resources rather than optimize economic return per unit land through purchased, manufactured inputs (Njoroge and Manu, 1999).  Organic farmers view themselves as not only protecting nature, but as part of it, and they arrange farm enterprises to provide food that is intrinsically better for human consumption (Kotschi et al., 2003).

The Organic Agriculture Movement developed in Europe as a reaction to industrialization and concerns that conventional farms relying upon manufactured agricultural inputs were “poisoning” consumers and destroying the environment (Kotschi et al., 2003).  Initially, farming based upon ecological principles provided “safe” food to like-minded consumers through local markets but as the movement grew, so too did the need for consumer protection through certification because “organic” goods were being transported longer distances to command a premium price. Europe’s Green Movement is in large part a political manifestation of the organic philosophies. Strict adherence to organic ideology requires that households arrange their lifestyles in a manner that emphasizes self-sufficiency and avoids all food and even textiles that are not produced through “organic” means. Most recently, the organic farming community has denounced the use of genetically-modified organisms in agriculture.

To outsiders, organic adherents appear dogmatic and aloof, in part because they judge, and denounce, much of conventional society along spiritual and ideological grounds.  Nonetheless, these adherents are prepared to pay a premium for their beliefs and almost all organic foods cost more than their conventionally-produced counterparts.  It is this commercial side to organic agriculture that attracts entrepreneurs, including those in developing nations.  Keen businessmen realize that most Western consumers do not consider ideological “baggage” when selecting food for their families, but instead seek assurance that it is healthy rather than harmful.  Commercial farms in Africa are establishing large-scale organic enterprises targeting European markets, and these farms are willing to greatly alter their crop production strategies in order to become certified for export.   Ironically, the poorest of African smallhold farmers inadvertently comply with the precepts of organic agriculture when they never apply mineral fertilizers, instead relying upon manures, and when plant and livestock disorders are treated with traditional plants rather than purchased veterinary medicines, but it is virtually impossible for them to have their produce certified as “organic” because of the safeguards in place to ensure quality control.

Soil Fertility Management in Organic Agriculture

Soil fertility management within organic farming systems in Kenya relies upon numerous, and often complex technologies.  Recycling nutrients through composting is a central tenet in organic farming (KIOF, 1990). The basic advantages and disadvantages of composting remain the same between organic and conventional farms. Composting concentrates nutrients from a wide range of readily-available organic resources into organic fertilizers containing reduced populations of harmful organisms and weed seeds.  This central advantage to composting may be offset by its large requirements of labor and water, and by the variable and often unknown nutrient content of the finished material (IIRR, 1998).  Some restrictions are placed upon how, and how long “certified” composts are prepared.  For example, European regulations require that composts prepared from plant materials that were sprayed with chemical pesticides, or manure from livestock receiving manufactured pharmaceuticals must be processed for at least six months before they may be applied to certifiable crops.

Some soil fertility management technologies acceptable to organic farmers are deeply rooted in traditional farming systems as practiced prior to European contact.  Traditional crop mixtures that combine cereals, nitrogen-fixing legumes and other crops reduce farmers’ risks, suppress weeds and pests and support soil fertility (IIRR, 1998).  The addition of livestock manure to soils is a viable alternative to mineral fertilizers when the manure is available in sufficient quality and quantity (Lekasi et al., 1998). Heavy mulches offer immediate benefit in terms of weed suppression, erosion control and greater moisture infiltration, and as these mulches decompose, nutrients are also released to the soil in a timed manner (Kanyanjua et al., 2000). Other technologies are shared with conventional agriculture, particularly with those land managers practicing Integrated Nutrient Management. These overlapping technologies include crop rotation, green manures, improved fallows, cover crops, reduced tillage and the addition of raw agricultural minerals (Vanlauwe et al., 2002) but not the addition of manufactured chemical fertilizers. 

Many technologies appear to be unique to the organic farming community and may involve complex manipulation of locally-available resources. “Double digging” involves sequential hand cultivation to soil depths from 0.6 to 1.3 meter in conjunction with large amounts of compost (KIOF, 1990).  The resulting raised bed is heavily mulched and doubtless provides an excellent media for crop roots, but at an extreme labor requirement, and this practice is inappropriate for sloped lands, or those with extremely infertile sub-soils (IIRR, 1998).   Similar effort and returns are expected from the “nine-maize hole” where 0.36 m² areas are excavated to 0.6 m depth and then partially filled with vegetation.  The soil is then mixed with 10 kg of compost, the hole refilled and planted with maize seed (IIRR, 1998).  This practice is not only labor demanding, but requires over 13 t compost per ha and utilizes relatively little of the total soil volume.  Plant and manure teas are a third practice that is widely promoted among the organic farming community.  Fresh manure or green leaves are fermented in water for 10 to 21 days and then diluted 2:1 with water before being applied as a liquid fertilizer.  Tithonia and comfrey are two plants that provide useful teas (KIOF, 1990).  While the process is simple, again the water and labor requirements are large, and poorer farmers may lack the large containers and watering cans needed (IIRR, 1990). One common feature to these three soil fertility management practices is their intensive reliance upon labor and organic material to such an extent that one may wonder whether these practices are better suited for home gardening than full-time farming.

Pest and Disease Management in Organic Agriculture

Organic farming methods disallow the application of manufactured chemicals for the control of pest and disease, rather plants are protected through preventative and defensive practices.  Passive prevention assumes that healthy crops are less susceptible to pest and disease and fertile, moist, well drained growing conditions will lead to fewer plant disorders.  Improved biological control results from promoting natural enemies of the organisms that cause plant disorders.  Four types of natural enemies are recognized; parasitoids, predators, pathogens and weed-feeders.  Applying natural substances to repel and disable pests and diseases is also accepted by the organic community.

Parasitoids and predators are similar except that at least one stage of a parasitoid’s life cycle is spent within the host pest while predators simply prey on plant pests and other insects.  As a result, parasitoids tend to be very specific in host range and predators attack a wider assortment of prey.  In addition, parasitoids tend to be smaller than their hosts and predators are larger than their prey.  Most important parasitoids are wasps but others are flies, beetles and other insects. Predators of insect and mite pests are primarily arthropods that include beetles,  lacewings, flies, midges, spiders, wasps, and predatory mites. Insect predators are found in both above and below ground environments in agricultural and natural habitats.  A common garden predator is the ladybug, a red or orange beetle with black spots that consumes harmful aphids, mites, scales and thrips.  Both parasitoids and predators are killed by chemical insecticides, but greater disruption in the life cycle occurs with parasitoids because of their restricted host range (Hoffmann and Frodsham, 1993).

Even pests have diseases, and their bacterial, fungal and viral disorders offer opportunity to control them.  Most insect pathogens are extremely specific and as a result will not affect other beneficial organisms.  Unlike chemical pesticides that immediately disable pests and beneficial organisms alike, microbial insecticides are specific and slower acting, requiring more time to debilitate its target.  Relatively few pest pathogens are commercially available, but this form of control offers exciting potential for the future (Weeden et al., 2003). Some insects also consume weeds although the release of these insects must be carefully considered to determine that crops will not also be attacked. An effective weed-feeder should be prolific, a good colonizer within a particular environment, have strong negative effects on the target weeds and be species specific (Emge and Templeton, 1981). An example is found in the successful release of the smooth water hyacinth weevil (Neochetina eichhorniae) around Lake Victoria in 1995 to control water hyacinth, an aggressive aquatic weed.

Organic farmers refer to the application of natural products that repel and destroy pests and disease as “defensive”.  Vegetable oil and soap, often combined with garlic and chilies, will repel or kill many smaller insects.  Botanical pesticides may be prepared from pyrethrum, tobacco and neem (IIRR, 1998).  An organic pesticide produced in cultures of Bacillus thuringiensis and marketed as Thuricide or Dipel effectively controls caterpillars.  Diatomaceous earth controls slugs, snails and other soft-bodied pests by cutting their bodies, causing dehydration.  Sprays of baking soda and sulfur are accepted by the organic community to control fungal disease.  Clearly, several alternatives to chemical pesticides are available but, as these materials are usually less toxic, the timing, placement and manner of their application becomes more critical.

Raising Organic Livestock and Poultry

Guidelines also exist for rearing animals in a manner that is acceptable to the organic community.  Meat, dairy products and eggs must be derived from animals that are provided feed from plants that are also raised following organic practices.  Livestock and poultry may not be treated with antibiotics or other manufactured veterinary pharmaceuticals, however, they may be vaccinated against infection and treated with natural products that repel and remove parasites. Animals must never be given hormones or other growth stimulants (OFRF, 2003). 

The housing and treatment of animals is very important in organic husbandry. Regular access to the outdoors must be provided in a manner that allows animals to express their natural behavior.  Organic advocates maintain that many animal pests and diseases are confounded within densely populated quarters where natural control agents are absent and that these stressful living conditions further predispose animals to disease.  Emphasis is placed upon preventing disease through balanced diets and access to nature. 

The validity of these assumptions concerning organic animal husbandry, and their relevance to Kenyan farmers is uncertain.  Refusing diseased animals veterinary medicines because these products are not “natural” is unethical, particularly when practiced by individuals who readily seek medical treatment for their own ailments.  No acceptable organic alternative is available for some intestinal parasites, forcing “organic” ranchers to use conventional dewormers or risk the health of their herds (Macey and Grace, 2000). Wild animals are also affected by parasites and disease, and indeed, exposing domestic cattle to antelopes may result in the transmission of East Coast Fever.  Condemning the use of manure obtained from animals that are treated with veterinary medicines places unreasonable restrictions upon organic resource utilization and may adversely affect smallholds’ food security, particularly when other alternative nutrient-rich organic materials are not available.  

Organic Farming and Kenyan Smallholders

The principles of organic farming and sustainable agriculture coincide, but they are not identical as the latter does not condemn chemical inputs.  Sustainable agriculture is the management of agricultural resources and production to satisfy changing human needs while conserving the natural resources and maintaining the quality of the environment (Vukasin et al., 1995). Conservation agriculture seeks to minimize the use of external chemical inputs in agricultural production in order to preserve the natural ecosystem.

Declining soil fertility resulting from continuous cultivation of smallhold farms and the need to conserve and build natural resource capital and biodiversity has contributed to the interest in organic agriculture. The Organic Movement views itself as a better alternative to the Green Revolution, which relies heavily upon mineral fertilizers.  Organic proponents argue that the application of chemical inputs causes environmental pollution in the soil through acidification and altered biological activities.  Others cite the failure of chemical fertilizers to maintain soil structure and soil organic matter as inherently non-sustainable (Harris et al., 1998). In contrast, the application of organic inputs supplies substrate to soil biological processes that in turn strengthens the resilience of soil to provide plant nutrients, maintain soil structure, retain water and detoxify agents harmful to plant roots and soil organisms (Woomer et al., 1994). 

The liberalization of Kenya’s agricultural sector in the early 1990s led to increased of prices of farm inputs as parastatal subsidies were withdrawn.  This situation caused many smallholders to rethink their production strategies and question their need for fertilizers.  Organic inputs were promoted as a replacement to fertilizer by emerging non-governmental organizations (NGOs), many of which developed sophisticated extension programs in organic agriculture designed to sustain smallhold farms (Hamilton, 1997; Harris et al., 1998).  But there is no specific government policy on organic agriculture in Kenya. Civic organizations presented recommendations to this effect during the preparation of the country’s Poverty Reduction Paper and the Rural Development Strategy in 2002. To a large extent, African governments have not incorporated policies on organic agriculture with the needs of food security and rural development, rather it is viewed as providing higher-value horticultural exports (Kotschi et al., 2003).  Perhaps this is attributable to the difference in experience, as their Organic Agriculture Movement did not develop as a reaction to African industrialization, but rather in an attempt to learn from the environmental mistakes made elsewhere and to provide organic products to growing export markets.

Organic Farming Organizations in Kenya

Several non-governmental organizations (NGOs) champion the organic farming movement in Kenya. These groups include the Kenya Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF), Manor House Agricultural Centre (MHAC), the Association for Better Land Husbandry (ABLH), the Sustainable Agriculture Community Development Programme (SACDEP) and the Kenya Organic Farmers Association (KOFA). These organizations have formed networks that provide training and information to numerous allied grassroots (Figure 1) groups but some are also involved in production, processing and marketing.  To some extent, these NGOs have established geographic domains where they advocate organic agriculture in their respective part of the country.

KIOF was a pioneer in Kenya’s organic agriculture movement and is based in Juja, near Nairobi. It was established in 1986 to promote organic agriculture among smallhold farmers through training and awareness creation with focus on youth, women and self-help farming groups. KIOF currently works with approximately 20000 farmers belonging to 1000 grassroots groups and maintains demonstration centers in five locations of Central and Rift Valley Provinces. KIOF works with other NGOs, government departments and research organizations in this initiative. The institute has published several booklets on smallholder organic farming practices (KIOF, 1990; Njoroge, 1994; Njoroge and Manu, 1999).

MHAC was established in 1984, is located in Trans Nzoia district near Kitale and leads Kenyan organizations in training on organic agriculture. These training programs focus upon Bio-Intensive Agriculture (BIA) in food production using deep soil preparation and recycling of organic matter into the soil (Figure 2). The Centre offers a two-year certificate course. MHAC also organizes one-week workshops for farmers and six weeks to three months courses for NGO and government extension workers. Its training programs also provide skills in livestock production, appropriate technology, small business management and agroforestry.

ABLH was founded in 1994 to assist farmers’ groups in soil fertility management and the processing and marketing of organic products. Its headquarters are located in Nairobi with branch offices in Kakamega and Kerugoya.  It initiated an Organic Matter Management Network (OMMN) to promote soil fertility management practices and later initiated processing and marketing of farmers produce under the label Conservation Supreme. Unfortunately, production could not be sustained and coupled with low demand for the products, the initiative collapsed. It is presently collaborating with the Soil Association of the United Kingdom to establish a local organic certification system (ABLH, 1998).

SACDEP was initiated in 1992 to provide training in natural resource management and rural income generation. It has headquarters in Thika and project activities covering Central and Eastern Provinces of Kenya. It runs a demonstration center within its headquarters and also installs on-farm demonstrations on organic farming. The NGO works through farmer field schools and rural self-help groups and publishes a quarterly magazine on organic farming, The Trumpet. SACDEP hosts the Participatory Ecological Land-Use Management Association (PELUM), a network of East and Southern Africa NGOs involved in sustainable agriculture.

KOFA was initiated by farmers participating in the KIOF extension and training program. It also operates as a forum for promotion of organic agriculture in Kenya with active participation of farmers and other stakeholders. The association published organic farming standards for its members based on standards by International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements and European Union (KOFA, 2002). It is also developing its capacity for collective marketing of farmers’ organic produce to European countries.

Conclusion

Questions surround the advantage of a Kenyan smallholder’s strict compliance with organic practices in absence of certification. Granted, organic management practices are effective in that satisfactory crop yields may be obtained while relying upon locally-available organic resources.  But these crops are produced in a more labor intensive and tedious fashion, and for smallholders to simply reject the entire suite of Green Revolution technologies on unproven ideological grounds is likely not in their own, nor their developing nation’s best interest.  This situation changes when organic certification is coupled with access to reliable organic export markets because organic practice leads to a market-oriented enterprise that offers greater returns than does subsistence farming.  For this reason, it is extremely important that local certification and marketing opportunities accompany the grassroots developmental activities that lead farmers toward organic agriculture.

Expanded organic agriculture also requires that acceptable farm inputs become commercially available.  For example, Kenya is the world’s leading producer and exporter of pyrethrum, a natural insecticide produced by the pyrethrum daisy Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium).  Approximately 11,000 t per year of the flowers of this plant are processed by the Pyrethrum Board of Kenya (2003) into an extract for export to developed nations.  This exported pyrethrum extract is then incorporated into several products including aerosol insecticidal sprays, mosquito coils, pet shampoos and organic insecticides. Pyrethrin is the insecticide of choice for many household applications because of its extremely low mammalian toxicity and the export revenues derived from it are an important part of Kenya’s economy (Thijssen, 1997).  Ironically, pyrethrin insecticides are not being locally-produced for use in Kenyan agriculture, instead farmers are advised to prepare their own “teas” from pyrethrum flowers and combine them with soapy water (IIRR, 1998).  Perhaps an opportunity is being lost by not locally processing some of Kenya’s pyrethrum into commercialized natural products intended as lower-cost, safer replacements of imported chemical insecticides.

Finally, organic resource management must not be confused with organic agriculture.  Admittedly, an organic farmer must optimize organic resource use simply to survive but, from an integrated resource management perspective, a land manager who mobilizes organic materials in conjunction with manufactured farm inputs has provided no less an environmental or economic service than another who shuns the use of farm chemicals on ideological grounds. 

References

Association for Better Land Husbandry. 1998. Standards for Organic Food and Farming. Association for Better Land Husbandry. Nairobi, Kenya.

Hamilton, P. 1997. A Study of Farmers’ Perceptions of Conservation Farming. Association for Better Land Husbandry. Nairobi, Kenya.

Harris, P.J.C., Lloyd, H.D., Honfy-Collins, A.H., Barret, A.R. and Browne, A.W. 1998. Organic Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa: Farmer Demand and Potential for Development. The Henry Doubleday Research Association. Coventry, UK.

Hoffmann, M.P. and Frodsham, A.C. 1993. Natural Enemies of Vegetable Insect Pests. Cooperative Extension, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. 63 pp.

International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR). 1998. Sustainable Agriculture Extension Manual for Eastern and Southern Africa. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. Nairobi, Kenya. 241 pp.

Kanyanjua, S.M., Mureithi, J.G., Gachene, C.K.K. and Saha, H.M. 2000. Soil Fertility Management Handbook for Extension Staff and Farmers in Kenya. Kenya Agricultural Institute. Nairobi, Kenya. 45 pp.

Kenya Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF). 1990. Organic Farming in Kenya. A Report on a National Workshop for Kenyan Nongovernmental Organizations. Kenya Institute of Organic Farming. Nairobi, Kenya. 80 pp.

Kenya Organic Farmers Association (KOFA). 2002. Kenya Organic Standards. Kenya Organic Farmers Association. Nairobi, Kenya.

Kotschi, J., Bayer, W., Becker, T. and Schrimpf, B. 2003. AlterOrganic: Local Agendas for Organic Agriculture in Rural Development.  AGRECOL, Marburg, Germany. 186 pp.

Lekasi, J.K., Tanner, J.C., Kimani, S.K. and Harris, P.J.C. 1998. Manure Management in the Kenya Highlands: Practices and Potential. The Henry Doubleday Research Association. Kenilworth, UK. 35 pp.

Macey, A. and Grace, S. 2000. Livestock management on organic farms: A survey of issues and farm-tested solutions. Organic Farming Research Foundation Information Bulletin 8:14-16.

Njoroge, J.W. 1994. Field Notes on Organic Farming. Kenya Institute of Organic Farming. Nairobi, Kenya.

Njoroge, W.J. and Manu, C. 1999. Organic Farming. A Textbook for Post-Secondary Education. Kenya Institute of Organic Farming. Nairobi, Kenya.

Organic Farming Research Foundation (OFRF). 2003. Frequently asked questions about organic farming. In: www.ofrf.org internet site. OFRF, Santa Cruz, US.

Pyrethrum Board of Kenya. 2003. Pyrethrum Products. A page of the www.kenya-pyrethum.com website. Pyrethrum Board of Kenya, Nakuru.

Scully, J. 2003. Growing organic. Ecoforum 26(2):20-24.

Thijssen, R. 1997. Natural insecticide pyrethrum. ILEIA Magazine 13(4):126-127

Vanlauwe, B., Diels, J., Sanginga, N. and Merckx, R. 2002. Integrated Plant Nutrient Management in Sub-Saharan Africa: From Concept to Practice. CABI Publishing. Oxon, U.K. 352 pp.

Vukasin, H.L., Roos, L., Spicer, N.H.D. and Davis, M. 1995. Production Without Destruction. Natural Farming Network. Harare, Zimbabwe.

Walaga, C. 2003. Organic agriculture in the continents. In: Yussefi, M. and Willer, H. (Eds.). The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics and Future Prospects. International Federation of Organic Movements (IFOAM). Tholey-Theley, Germany. 130 pp.

Weeden, C.R., Shelton, A.M., Li, Y. and Hoffmann, M.P. 2003. Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America. Cornell University, Ithica, US.

Woomer, P.L., Martin, A., Albrecht, A., Resck, D.V.S. and Scharpenseel, H.W. 1994.  The importance and management of soil organic matter in the tropics. In: Woomer, P.L. and Swift, M.J. (Eds.) The Biological Management of Tropical Soil Fertility. J. Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK. pp 47-80.

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